1	Chapter 5 Language
2	World of Tongues Earth’s heterogeneous collection of languages is one of its most obvious examples of cultural diversity. Estimates of distinct languages in the world range from 2,000 to 4,000. Aside from the 10 largest languages, About 100 languages are spoken by at least 5 million people And, only about 70 languages are spoken by at least 2 million people.
3	Language The Key Issues are: Where are English-language speakers distributed? Why is English related to other languages? Where are other language families distributed? Why do people preserve local languages?
4	Language & Communication Language is a system of communication through speech. Many languages also have a literary tradition, or a system of written communication. The lack of written record makes it difficult to document the distribution of many languages.
5	Countries and Language Countries designate at least one language as their official language. A country with more than one official language may require all public documents to be in all languages.
6	Languages Today The study of language follows logically from migration, because the contemporary distribution of languages around the world results largely from past migrations of peoples. On the one hand, English has achieved an unprecedented globalization. On the other hand, people are trying to preserve local diversity in language. The global distribution of languages results from a combination of two geographic processes—interaction and isolation.
7	Indo-European Language Tree The Indo-European language family developed as a result of migration and subsequent isolation of people that can only be reconstructed through linguistic and archaeological theories.
8	Issue 1: Origin, Diffusion, and Dialects of English Origin and diffusion of English English colonies Origin of English in England Dialects of English Dialects in England Differences between British and American English Dialects in the United States
9	English Speaking Countries
10	Origin and Diffusion of English The contemporary distribution of English speakers around the world exists because the people of England migrated with their language when they established colonies during the past four centuries. English first diffused west from England to North America in the seventeenth century. Similarly, the British took control of Ireland in the seventeenth century, South Asia in the mid- eighteenth century, the South Pacific in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and southern Africa in the late nineteenth century. More recently, the United States has been responsible for diffusing English to several places.
11	Origin of English in England The British Isles have been inhabited for thousands of years, but we know little of their early languages, until the Celts arrived around 2000 B.C. Then, around 450AD, tribes from mainland Europe invaded, pushing the Celts into the remote northern and western parts.
12	Invasions of England 5^th–11^thcenturies
13	Norman Invasion English is different from German because England was conquered by the Normans in 1066. The Normans, who came from present-day Normandy in France, spoke French, which they established as England’s official language for the next 150 years. The majority of the people continued to speak English. In 1204 England lost control of Normandy and entered a long period of conflict with France.
14	Norman Invasion Continued Parliament enacted the Statute of Pleading in 1362 to change the official language of court business from French to English. During the 300-year period that French was the official language of England, the Germanic language used by the common people and the French used by the leaders mingled to form a new language.
15	The Queens English A dialect is a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. English has an especially large number of dialects. One particular dialect of English, the one associated with upper-class Britons living in the London area, is recognized in much of the English-speaking world as the standard form of British speech, known as British Received Pronunciation (BRP).
16	Basis of English English originated with three invading groups who settled in different parts of Britain. (Anglo’s – Saxon’s - Jutes) The language each spoke was the basis of distinct regional dialects of Old English.
17	British Universities Following the Norman invasion of 1066 by the time English again became the country’s dominant language, five major regional dialects had emerged. From this large collection of local dialects, one eventually emerged as the standard language the dialect used by upper-class residents in the capital city of London and the two important university cities of Cambridge and Oxford first encouraged by the introduction of the printing press to England in 1476. Grammar books and dictionaries printed in the eighteenth century established rules for spelling and grammar that were based on the London dialect.
18	Old and Middle English Dialects
19	Differences between British and American English The earliest colonists were most responsible for the dominant language patterns that exist today in the English-speaking part of the Western Hemisphere.
20	Differences in Vocabulary and Spelling English in the United States and England evolved independently during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. U.S. English differs from that of England in three significant ways: vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation. The vocabulary is different because settlers in America encountered many new objects and experiences, which were given names borrowed from Native Americans. As new inventions appeared, they acquired different names on either side of the Atlantic. Spelling diverged because of a strong national feeling in the United States for an independent identity. Noah Webster, the creator of the first comprehensive American dictionary and grammar books, was not just a documenter of usage, he had an agenda. Webster argued that spelling and grammar reforms would help establish a national language, reduce cultural dependence on England, and inspire national pride.
21	Differences in Pronunciation Differences in pronunciation between British and U.S. speakers are immediately recognizable. Interaction between the two groups was largely confined to exchange of letters and other printed matter rather than direct speech. Surprisingly, pronunciation has changed more in England than in the United States. People in the United States do not speak “proper” English because when the colonists left England, “proper” English was not what it is today.
22	British Slang Words Below are a few slang words commonly used in Britain. Bloke - man. 'John is a nice bloke to know.' Botched - poor quality repairs. 'He made a botched job of fixing the television.' Bottle - courage. 'He doesn't have the bottle to ask her.' Cheesed Off - fed up Chuck it down - to rain, often heavily. 'It is going to chuck it down soon.' Chuffed - If you are chuffed, you are happy with something. 'I was chuffed to win a medal!' Daft - Crazy / stupid Dosh - Money / cash 'I haven't got much dosh to give you.' Gobsmacked - Incredibly amazed. 'I was gobsmacked when I saw my birthday presents.' Gutted - Not happy because of an event that has occurred that didn't go your way. 'I was gutted when I didn't win the race' Jammy - Used in place of lucky when describing someone else. 'He was very jammy winning the lottery'. Scrummy - Delicious. Shortened from scrumptious. 'The food was very scrummy' Skint - Broke. No money. 'I'm skint, I wont be able to buy the DVD today.' to Snog - to long kiss Telly - Television 'I watched the news on the telly last night.'
23	Dialects in the United States Major differences in U.S. dialects originated because of differences in dialects among the original settlers. The original American settlements can be grouped into three areas: New England, Middle Atlantic, and Southeastern. Two-thirds of the New England colonists were Puritans from East Anglia in southeastern England. About half of the southeastern settlers came from southeast England, although they represented a diversity of social-class backgrounds. The immigrants to the Middle Atlantic colonies were more diverse because most of the settlers came from the north rather than the south of England or from other countries.
24	Dialects in the Eastern U.S.
25	20^th Century Homogeny Many words that were once regionally distinctive are now national in distribution. Mass media, especially television and radio, influence the adoption of the same words throughout the country.
26	Regional Pronunciation Regional pronunciation differences are more familiar to us than word differences, although it is harder to draw precise isoglosses for them. The New England accent is well known for dropping the /r/ sound, shared with speakers from the south of England. Residents of Boston maintained especially close ties to the important ports of southern England. Compared to other colonists, New Englanders received more exposure to changes in pronunciation that occurred in Britain during the eighteenth century. The mobility of Americans has been a major reason for the relatively uniform language that exists throughout much of the West.
27	Minor Dialects Today
28	Issue 2: The Indo-European Language Family Branches of Indo-European Germanic branch Indo-Iranian branch Balto-Slavic branch Romance branch Origin and diffusion of Indo-European Kurgan and Anatolian theories
29	Indo-European Language Family
30	Germanic Branch of Indo-European English and German are both languages in the West Germanic group. West Germanic is further divided into High Germanic and Low Germanic subgroups, so named because they are found in high and low elevations within present-day Germany. High German, spoken in the southern mountains of Germany, is the basis for the modern standard German language. English is classified in the Low Germanic subgroup. The Germanic language branch also includes North Germanic languages, spoken in Scandinavia. The four Scandinavian languages—Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic—all derive from Old Norse.
31	Indo-Iranian Branch of Indo-European The branch of the Indo-European language family with the most speakers is Indo-Iranian, more than 100 individual languages divided into an eastern group (Indic) and a western group (Iranian).
32	Indic (Eastern) Group of Indo-Iranian Language Branch The most widely used languages in India, as well as in the neighboring countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh, belong to the Indic group of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Approximately one-third of Indians, mostly in the north, use an Indic language called Hindi. Hindi is spoken many different ways—and therefore could be regarded as a collection of many individual languages but there is only one official way to write the language, using a script called Devanagari.
33	Pakistan Pakistan’s principal language, Urdu, is spoken very much like Hindi but is written with the Arabic alphabet, a legacy of the fact that most Pakistanis are Muslims, and their holiest book (the Quran) is written in Arabic. Hindi, originally a variety of Hindustani spoken in the area of New Delhi, grew into a national language in the nineteenth century when the British encouraged its use in government.
34	South Asian Languages and Language Families
35	Iranian (Western) Group of Indo-Iranian Language Branch Indo-Iranian languages spoken in Iran and neighboring countries form a separate group from Indic. The major Iranian group languages include Persian (sometimes called Farsi) in Iran, Pathan in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and Kurdish, used by the Kurds of western Iran, northern Iraq, and eastern Turkey. These languages are written in the Arabic alphabet.
36	Balto-Slavic Branch of Indo-European Slavic was once a single language, but differences developed in the seventh century A.D. when several groups of Slavs migrated from Asia to different areas of Eastern Europe.
37	East Slavic and Baltic Groups of Balto-Slavic Language Branch After Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian (sometimes written Byelorussian) are the two most important East Slavic languages. The desire to use languages other than Russian was a major drive in the Soviet Union breakup a decade ago.
38	West and South Slavic Groups of Balto-Slavic Language Branch The most spoken West Slavic language is Polish, followed by Czech and Slovak. The latter two are quite similar, and speakers of one can understand the other. The two most important South Slavic languages are Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian. Although Serbs and Croats speak the same language, they use different alphabets. Slovene is the official language of Slovenia, while Macedonian is used in the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia.
39	Romance Branch of Indo-European
40	Origin and Diffusion of Romance Languages As the conquering Roman armies occupied the provinces of it’s vast empire, they brought the Latin language with them the languages spoken by the natives of the provinces were either extinguished or suppressed. Latin used in each province was based on that spoken by the Roman army at the time of occupation. Each province also integrated words spoken in the area. The Latin that people in the provinces learned was not the standard literary form but a spoken form, known as Vulgar Latin, from the Latin word referring to “the masses” of the populace.
41	After the Fall of Rome By the eighth century, regions of the former empire had been isolated from each other long enough for distinct languages to evolve. Latin persisted in parts of the former empire. People in some areas reverted to former languages, while others adopted the languages of conquering groups from the north and east, which spoke Germanic and Slavic.
42	Romance Language Dialects – France Distinct Romance languages did not suddenly appear. They evolved over time. The creation of standard national languages, such as French and Spanish, was relatively recent. The dialect of the Ile-de-France region, known as Francien, became the standard form of French because the region included Paris. The most important surviving dialect difference within France is between the north and the south. The northern dialect, langue d’oil and the southern langue d’ôc provide insight into how languages evolve. These terms derive from different ways in which the word for “yes” was said.
43	Romance Language Dialects – Spain Spain, like France, contained many dialects during the Middle Ages. In the fifteenth century, when the Kingdom of Castile and Leon merged with the Kingdom of Aragón, Castilian became the official language for the entire country.
44	Spanish and Portuguese Speaking Countries Spanish and Portuguese have achieved worldwide importance because of the colonial activities of their European speakers. Approximately 90 percent of the speakers of these two languages live outside Europe. Spanish is the official language of 18 Latin American states, while Portuguese is spoken in Brazil. The division of Central and South America into Portuguese- and Spanish-speaking regions is the result of a 1493 decision by Pope Alexander VI. The Portuguese and Spanish languages spoken in the Western Hemisphere differ somewhat from their European versions.
45	Creole A creole or creolized language is defined as a language that results from the mixing of the colonizer’s language with the indigenous language. A creolized language forms when the colonized group makes some changes, such as simplifying the grammar. The word creole derives from a word in several Romance languages for a slave who is born in the master’s house.
46	Origin and Diffusion of Indo-European The existence of a single ancestor cannot be proved with certainty, because it would have existed thousands of years before the invention of writing or recorded history. The evidence that Proto-Indo-European once existed is “internal.” Individual Indo-European languages share common root words for winter and snow but not for ocean. Therefore, linguists conclude that original Proto-Indo-European speakers probably lived in a cold climate, or one that had a winter season, but did not come in contact with oceans.
47	Kurgan Theory of Indo-European Origin
48	Anatolian Hearth Theory of Indo-European Origin
49	Issue 3: Distribution of Other Language Families Classification of languages Distribution of language families Sino-Tibetan language family Other East and Southeast Asian language families Afro-Asiatic language family Altaic and Uralic language families African language families
50	Language Families of the World
51	Major Language Families Percentage of World Population
52	Language Family Trees Fig. 5-12: Family trees and estimated numbers of speakers for the main world language families.
53	Sino-Tibetan Family The Sino-Tibetan family encompasses languages spoken in the People’s Republic of China as well as several smaller countries in Southeast Asia.
54	Sinitic Branch – Chinese Languages There is no single Chinese language. Spoken by approximately three-fourths of the Chinese people, Mandarin is by a wide margin the most used language in the world. Other Sinitic branch languages are spoken by tens of millions of people in China. The Chinese government is imposing Mandarin countrywide.
55	Structure of Chinese Language The structure of Chinese languages is quite different (from Indo-European). They are based on 420 one-syllable words. This number far exceeds the possible one-syllable sounds that humans can make, so Chinese languages use each sound to denote more than one thing. The listener must infer the meaning from the context in the sentence and the tone of voice the speaker uses. In addition, two one-syllable words can be combined.
56	Chinese Ideograms
57	Austro-Thai and Tibeto-Burman In addition to the Chinese languages included in the Sinitic branch, the Sino-Tibetan family includes two smaller branches, Austro-Thai and Tibeto-Burman.
58	Distinctive Language Families - Japanese Chinese cultural traits have diffused into Japanese society, including the original form of writing the Japanese language. Japanese is written in part with Chinese ideograms, but it also uses two systems of phonetic symbols.
59	Distinctive Language Families - Korean Korean is usually classified as a separate language family. Korean is written not with ideograms but in a system known as hankul. In this system, each letter represents a sound.
60	Distinctive Language Families - Vietnamese Austro-Asiatic, spoken by about 1 percent of the world’s population, is based in Southeast Asia. Vietnamese (is) the most spoken tongue of the language family. The Vietnamese alphabet was devised in the seventh century by Roman Catholic missionaries.
61	Afro-Asiatic Language Family The Afro-Asiatic-—once referred to as the Semito-Hamitic—language family includes Arabic and Hebrew, as well as a number of languages spoken primarily in northern Africa and southwestern Asia. Arabic is the major Afro-Asiatic language, an official language in two dozen countries of North Africa and southwestern Asia, from Morocco to the Arabian Peninsula.
62	Altaic and Uralic language families The Altaic and Uralic language families were once thought to be linked as one family because the two display similar word formation, grammatical endings, and other structural elements. Recent studies, however, point to geographically distinct origins.
63	Altaic Languages
64	Uralic Languages Every European country is dominated by Indo-European speakers, except for three: Estonia, Finland, and Hungary. The Estonians, Finns, and Hungarians speak languages that belong to the Uralic family, first used 7,000 years ago by people living in the Ural Mountains north of the Kurgan homeland.
65	Language Families of Africa
66	Niger-Congo Language Family More than 95 percent of the people in sub-Saharan Africa speak languages of the Niger-Congo family, which includes six branches with many hard to classify languages. The remaining 5 percent speak languages of the Khoisan or Nilo-Saharan families.
67	Swahili The largest branch of the Niger- Congo family is the Benue-Congo branch, and its most important language is Swahili. Its vocabulary has strong Arabic influences. Swahili is one of the few African languages with an extensive literature.
68	Nilo-Saharan Language Family Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by a few million people in north-central Africa, immediately north of the Niger-Congo language region. The best known of these languages is Maasai, spoken by the tall warrior-herdsmen of east Africa.
69	Khoisan Language Family The third important language family of sub-Saharan Africa—Khoisan—is concentrated in the southwest. Khoisan language use clicking sounds.
70	Austronesian Language Family About 6 percent of the world’s people speak an Austronesian language, once known as the Malay-Polynesian family. The most frequently used Austronesian language is Malay-Indonesian. The people of Madagascar speak Malagasy, which belongs to the Austronesian family, even though the island is separated by 3,000 kilometers (1,900 miles) from any other Austronesian-speaking country.
71	Languages of Nigeria Africa’s most populous country, Nigeria, displays problems that can arise from the presence of many speakers of many languages. Groups living in different regions of Nigeria have often battled. Nigeria reflects the problems that can arise when great cultural diversity—and therefore language diversity—is packed into a relatively small region.
72	Issue 4: Language Diversity and Uniformity Preserving language diversity Hebrew: reviving extinct languages Celtic: preserving endangered languages Multilingual states Isolated languages Global dominance of English English as a lingua franca Diffusion to other languages
73	Preserving Language Diversity Thousands of languages are extinct languages, once in use—even in the recent past but no longer spoken or read in daily activities by anyone in the world. The eastern Amazon region of Peru in the sixteenth century (had) more than 500 languages. Only 57 survive today, half of which face extinction. Gothic was widely spoken in Eastern and Northern Europe in the third century A.D. The last speakers of Gothic lived in the Crimea in Russia in the sixteenth century. Many Gothic people switched to speaking the Latin language after their conversion to Christianity.
74	Hebrew: Reviving Extinct Languages Hebrew is a rare case of an extinct language that has been revived. Hebrew diminished in use in the fourth century B.C. and was thereafter retained only for Jewish religious services. When Israel was established. in 1948, Hebrew became one of the new country’s two official languages, along with Arabic. The effort was initiated by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, credited with the invention of 4,000 new Hebrew words—related when possible to ancient ones—and the creation of the first modern Hebrew dictionary.
75	Celtic: Preserving Endangered Languages Two thousand years ago Celtic languages were spoken in much of present-day Germany, France, and northern Italy, as well as in the British Isles. Today Celtic languages survive only in remoter parts of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and on the Brittany peninsula of France.
76	Celtic Groups The Celtic language branch is divided into Goidelic (Gaelic) and Brythonic groups. Two Goidelic languages survive: Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic. Only 75,000 people speak Irish Gaelic exclusively. In Scotland fewer than 80,000 of the people (2 percent) speak it. Over time, speakers of Brythonic (also called Cymric or Britannic) fled westward to Wales, southwestward to Cornwall, or southward across the English Channel to the Brittany peninsula of France. An estimated one-fourth of the people in Wales still use Welsh as their primary language, although all but a handful know English as well.
77	Revival of Celtic Languages Recent efforts have prevented the disappearance of Celtic languages. Britain’s 1988 Education Act made Welsh language training a compulsory subject in all schools in Wales, and Welsh history and music have been added to the curriculum. The number of people fluent in Irish Gaelic has grown in recent years as well, especially among younger people. An Irish-language TV station began broadcasting in 1996. A couple of hundred people have now become fluent in the formerly extinct Cornish language, which was revived in the 1920s.
78	Multilingual States Difficulties can arise at the boundary between two languages. The boundary between the Romance and Germanic branches runs through the middle of Belgium and Switzerland. Belgium has had more difficulty than Switzerland in reconciling the interests of the different language speakers.
79	Language Divisions in Belgium
80	Language Areas in Switzerland
81	French-English Boundary in Canada
82	Isolated Languages An isolated language is a language unrelated to any other and therefore not attached to any language family. Isolated languages arise through lack of interaction with speakers of other languages.
83	A Pre-Indo-European Survivor: Basque The best example of an isolated language in Europe is Basque. Basque is spoken by 1 million people in the Pyrenees Mountains.
84	An Unchanging Language: Icelandic Unlike Basque, Icelandic is related to other languages. Icelandic’s significance is that over the past thousand years it has changed less than any other in the Germanic branch.
85	Global Dominance of English One of the most fundamental needs in a global society is a common language for communication. Increasingly in the modern world, the language of international communication is English. When well-educated speakers of two different languages wish to communicate with each other in countries such as India or Nigeria, they frequently use English.
86	Internet Hosts
87	Internet Hosts, by Language
88	English: An Example of a Lingua Franca A language of international communication (internet) is known as a lingua franca. The term, which means language of the Franks, was originally applied by Arab traders during the Middle Ages to describe the language they used to communicate with Europeans, whom they called Franks. A group that learns English or another lingua franca may learn a simplified form, called a pidgin language. Two groups construct a pidgin language by learning a few of the grammar rules and words of a lingua franca, while mixing in some elements of their own languages. Other than English, modern lingua franca languages include Swahili in East Africa, Hindustani in South Asia, and Russian in the former Soviet Union.
89	African-American Lingua Franca Examples include dialects spoken by African-Americans and residents of Appalachia. African-American slaves preserved a distinctive dialect in part to communicate in a code not understood by their white masters. In the twentieth century living in racially segregated neighborhoods within northern cities and attending segregated schools, many blacks preserved their distinctive dialect. That dialect has been termed Ebonics, a combination of ebony and phonics. The American Speech, Language and Hearing Association has classified Ebonics as a distinct dialect, with a recognized vocabulary, grammar, and word meaning.
90	Franglais The French are particularly upset with the increasing worldwide domination of English. French is an official language in 26 countries and for hundreds of years served as the lingua franca for international diplomats. The widespread use of English in the French language is called franglais, a combination of francais and anglais, the French words for French and English.
91	Spanglish Spanglish is a richer integration of English with Spanish than the mere borrowing of English words. New words have been invented in Spanglish that do not exist in English but would be useful if they did. Spanglish has become especially widespread in popular culture, such as song lyrics, television, and magazines aimed at young Hispanic women, but it has also been adopted by writers of serious literature.
92	Chapter 5 Language The End