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- The rise of the West from the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries
involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening
and redefining of relationships among world societies.
- During the classical era, larger regional economies and culture zones
had developed, as in the Chinese Middle Kingdom and the Mediterranean
basin, but international exchanges were not of fundamental importance to
the societies involved.
- During the postclassical period, contacts increased and were more
significant.
- Missionary religions—Buddhism and Islam—and trade influenced important
changes.
- The new world relationships after 1450 spelled a new period of world
history.
- The Americas and other world areas were joined to the world network,
while older regions had increased contacts.
- Trade became so significant that new relationships emerged among
societies and prompted reconsideration of existing political and
cultural traditions.
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- Europeans had become more aware of the outside world since the beginning
of the twelfth century.
- Knowledge gained during the Crusades and from contacts with the great
Mongol Empire spurred interest.
- European upper classes became used to imports, especially spices,
brought from India and Southeast Asia to the Middle East by Arab
vessels, and then carried to Europe by traders from Italian city-states.
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- The fall of the Mongol dynasty in China, the strength of the Ottoman
Empire, lack of gold to pay for imports, and poor naval technology
hindered efforts for change.
- Europeans launched more consistent attempts for expansion from the late
thirteenth century.
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- Technological improvements during the fifteenth century changed the
equation.
- Deep-draft, round-hulled ships were able to sail in the Atlantic’s
waters.
- Improved metalwork techniques allowed the vessels to carry armaments far
superior to the weapons aboard ships of other societies.
- The compass and better mapmaking improved navigational skills.
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- The initiative for Atlantic exploration came from Portugal.
- Prince Henry the Navigator directed explorations motivated by Christian
missionary zeal, the excitement of discovery, and a thirst for wealth.
- From 1434, Portuguese vessels, searching for a route to India, traveled
ever farther southward along the African coast.
- In 1488, they passed the Cape of Good Hope.
- Vasco da Gama reached India in 1497.
- In 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral’s fleet blew off course, reached Brazil.
- By 1514, the Portuguese had reached Indonesia and China.
- In 1542, they arrived in Japan and began Catholic missionary activity.
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- Fortresses were established in African and Asian ports.
- The Spanish quickly followed the Portuguese example.
- Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, mistakenly calling their
inhabitants Indians.
- Spain gained papal approval for its claims over most of Latin America; a
later decision gave Brazil to Portugal.
- Sixteenth century expeditions brought the Spanish as far north as the
southwestern United States.
- Ferdinand Magellan began a Spanish voyage in 1519 that circumnavigated
the globe.
- As a result, Spain claimed the Philippines.
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- In the sixteenth century, the exploratory initiative moved from the
Portuguese and Spanish to strong northern European states—Britain,
Holland, and France.
- They had improved oceanic vessel design, while Portugal and Spain were
busy digesting their colonial gains.
- The British naval victory over Spain in 1588 left general ocean
dominance to northern nations.
- The French first crossed the Atlantic in 1534 and soon established
settlements in Canada.
- The British reached North America in 1497, beginning colonization of its
east coast during the seventeenth century.
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- The Dutch also had holdings in the Americas.
- They won control of Indonesia from the Portuguese by the early
seventeenth century, and in the middle of the century established a
relay settlement on the southern tip of Africa.
- French, Dutch, and British traders received government-awarded
monopolies of trade in the newly reached regions, but the chartered
companies acted without much official supervision.
- They gained great profits and acted like independent political entities.
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- Historians desiring to understand social change have to study causation.
- The many factors involved in any one case make precise answers
impossible, but when sufficient data are available, high probability can
be attained.
- Scholars looking for single-factor determinants use cultural,
technological, economic, or “great man” theories as explanations.
- All of the approaches raise as many questions as answers.
- The best understanding is reached through debate based on all efforts
chosen as explanations.
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- Europe's new maritime activity had three major consequences for world
history:
- the creation of a new international pool for exchanges of food,
diseases, and manufactured products;
- the forming of a more inclusive world economy;
- and the opening of some parts of the world to Western colonization.
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- The extension of international interaction facilitated the spread of
disease.
- Native Americans and Polynesians, lacking natural immunities to smallpox
and measles, died in huge numbers.
- In the Americas, Europeans forged new populations from their own peoples
and through importation of African slaves.
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- New World crops spread rapidly.
- American corn and the potato became important in Europe;
- Corn and the sweet potato similarly changed life in China and Africa.
- Major population increases resulted.
- The use of tobacco, sugar, and coffee slowly became widespread in
Europe.
- European and Asian animals passed to the New World.
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- Westerners, because of their superior military might, dominated
international trade, but they did not displace all rivals.
- Asian shipping continued in Chinese and Japanese coastal waters,
- Muslim traders predominated along the East African littoral.
- And, the Turks were active in the Eastern Mediterranean.
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- Little inland territory was conquered in Africa or Asia;
- The Europeans sought secure harbors and built fortifications to protect
their commerce and serve as contact places for inland traders.
- When effective indigenous states opposed such bases, Europeans gained
protected trading enclaves within their cities.
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- By the seventeenth century a new world economy, dominated by Europeans,
had formed.
- Spain and Portugal briefly held leadership, but their economies and
banking systems could not meet the new demands.
- England, France, and Holland, the core nations, established more durable
economic dominance.
- They expanded manufacturing operations to meet new market conditions.
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- The doctrines of mercantilism protected home markets and supported
exports; tariff policies discouraged competition from colonies and
foreign rivals.
- Beyond Europe, areas became dependent participants in the world economy
as producers and suppliers of low-cost raw materials; in return they
received European manufactured items.
- Africa entered the world network mainly as a slave supplier.
- Europeans controlled commercial and shipping services.
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- The rise of core and dependent economic zones became an enduring factor
in world economic relationships.
- Some participants in the dependent regions had an opportunity for
profit.
- African slave traders and rulers taxing the trade could become rich.
- Indigenous merchants in Latin America satisfied regional food
requirements.
- Many peasants in all regions remained untouched by international
markets.
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- Still, indigenous merchants and landlords did not control their terms of
trade; the wealth gained was expended on European imports and did not
stimulate local manufacturing or general economic advance.
- Dependence in the world economy helped form a coercive labor system.
- The necessity for cheap products produced in the Americas resulted in
exploitation of indigenous populations or use of slaves.
- In the Dutch East Indies and British India, peasants were forced into
labor systems.
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- Huge world areas remained outside the world economy.
- They were not affected politically or economically by its structure, and
until the eighteenth century did not greatly suffer from the missed
opportunities for profit or technological advance.
- East Asian civilizations did not need European products; they
concentrated on consumption or regional commerce.
- China was uninterested in international trading involvement and remained
mainly outside the world economy until the end of the eighteenth
century.
- China was powerful enough to keep Europeans in check.
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- Some limited trade was permitted in Portuguese Macao, and European
desire for Chinese manufactured items made China the leading recipient
of American silver.
- In Japan, early openness to Europeans, in missionary activity and
interest in military technology, quickly ended.
- Most contacts were prohibited from the seventeenth to the nineteenth
century.
- Mughal India, the Ottoman Empire, and Safavid Persia all allowed minimal
trade with Europeans but concentrated on their own internal development.
- Russia and African regions not participating in the slave trade were
outside the international economic orbit.
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- European dominance spread to new areas during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries.
- British and French merchants strengthened their positions as the Mughal
Empire began falling apart.
- Britain passed legislation designed to turn their holdings into
dependent regions.
- Tariffs blocked cottons from competing with British production.
- India’s complex economy survived, but with a weakened international
status.
- Eastern Europe joined world economic activity by exporting grain, mainly
produced by serfs working on large estates, from Prussia, Poland, and
Russia, to the West.
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- Western colonial dominance over many peoples accompanied the new world
economic network.
- Two types of American colonies emerged, in Latin America and the
Caribbean, and in North America.
- Smaller colonies were present in Africa and Asia.
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- Spain quickly colonized West Indian islands; in 1509 settlement began on
the mainland in Panama.
- Military expeditions conquered the Aztecs and Incas. The early colonies
were formed by small bands of adventurers loosely controlled by European
administrations.
- The settlers ruthlessly sought gold; when there were substantial Indian
populations, they exacted tribute without imposing much administration.
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- As agricultural settlements were established, Spanish and Portuguese
officials created more formal administration.
- Missionary activity added another layer of administration.
- Northern Europeans began colonial activity during the early seventeenth
century.
- The French settled in Canada and explored the Mississippi River basin.
- The Dutch and English occupied coastal Atlantic territories.
- All three nations colonized West Indian islands and built slave-based
economies.
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- North American colonial patterns differed from those in Latin America
and the Caribbean.
- Religious refugees came to British territories.
- Land grants to major proprietors stimulated the recruitment of settlers.
- The French in Canada planned the establishment of manorial estates under
the control of great lords controlled by the state.
- French peasants emigrated in small numbers but increased settlement
through a high birth rate.
- The Catholic Church held a strong position.
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- France in 1763 through the Treaty of Paris surrendered Canada and the
Mississippi basin to the British.
- The French inhabitants remained unhappy with British rule, but many
American loyalists arrived after the 1776 revolution.
- The North American colonies had less value to their rulers than did
Asian or West Indian possessions.
- The value of the exports and imports of their small populations was
insignificant.
- Continuing settler arrival occurred as Indian populations declined
through disease and warfare.
- Indians and Europeans did not form new cultural groups as they did in
Latin America; Indians instead moved westward where they developed a
culture based on the imported European horse.
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- North American colonial societies developed following European patterns.
- British colonies formed assemblies based on broad male participation.
- The colonists also avidly consumed Enlightenment political ideas.
- Trade and manufacturing developed widely, and a strong merchant class
appeared.
- The colonists retained vigorous cultural ties with Europe; an unusual
percentage of the settlers were literate.
- The importation of African slaves and slavery separated the North
America experience from European patterns.
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- Western habits had been transplanted into a new setting.
- Americans married earlier, had more children, and displayed an unusual
concern for children, but they still reproduced the European-style
family.
- When British colonists revolted against their rulers, they did so under
Western-inspired political and economic ideology.
- Once successful, they were the first to implement some of the principal
concepts of that ideology.
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- In Africa, most Europeans were confined, because of climate, disease,
geographical barriers, and African strength, to coastal trading forts.
- The exceptions were in Angola and South Africa.
- The Portuguese sent disruptive slaving expeditions into Angola from
established coastal centers.
- In South Africa, the Dutch founded Cape Town in 1652 as a settlement for
supplying ships on the way to southeastern Asia.
- The settlers expanded into nearby regions where they met and fought
indigenous hunters and herding peoples.
- Later they began wars with the Bantu.
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- European settlements in Asia also were minimal.
- Spain moved into the Philippines and began Christianizing activities;
the Dutch East India Company administered parts of Indonesia and briefly
had a presence in Taiwan.
- Asian colonization began a new phase when France and Britain, with forts
along both coasts, began to compete for control in India as Mughal
authority declined.
- Outright war began in 1744, with each side allying with Indian princes.
- French defeat destroyed their power in India.
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- British victories over Indians in Bengal from the 1750s further
increased British power.
- In India, as in most African and Asian territories, and unlike in the
Americas, European administration remained limited.
- Officials were satisfied to conclude agreements with indigenous rulers.
- European cultural effect was slight and few settlers, apart from the
Dutch in South Africa, took up residence.
- Only in the Philippines were many indigenous peoples drawn to
Christianity.
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- Colonial development affected western Europe economically and
diplomatically.
- Colonial rivalries added to the persisting hostilities between nations.
- The Seven Years’ War, fought in Europe, Asia, and America, was the first
worldwide war.
- The colonies brought new wealth to Europe, profiting merchants and
manufacturers.
- New products changed lifestyles: once-costly sugar became available to
ordinary people.
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- The development of a world economy and European colonialism had major
effects.
- Economic pressures brought important changes.
- African populations were disrupted by the slave trade.
- Indian manufacturing levels declined.
- New labor systems formed in many regions.
- The interaction between civilizations was significant.
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- New elements entered the world history framework.
- Indigenous responses, as with Christianity, combined their ideas with
the arriving influences.
- Despite the many hardships imposed on many societies, some benefits
resulted.
- New food crops and increased trade allowed population growth.
- Challenges had been created for all civilizations, and whatever the
individual reaction, innovation was required.
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- The relationships between Europe’s and the world’s economy were complex,
ranging from conscious isolation to controlled participation to
dependency.
- The world was growing closer, but it was not necessarily becoming
simpler.
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