Asian Transitions in an Age of Global Change
Chapter Summary
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Most Asian peoples, with the exception
of the Southeast Asian islands, were only slightly affected by the arrival of
the Europeans. |
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The West did not change India, China,
and Japan early on. |
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The peoples of East Asia developed new
political and social strengths while following a policy of isolation in
response to western incursions. |
Chapter Summary Continued
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Vasco da Gama's voyage to India had
opened the way to the east for Europeans, but it soon became clear that
Europeans had little to offer Asians in exchange for their desired products. |
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Asians were not interested in
converting to Christianity. |
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Asian states were too strong to be
conquered by Europeans. |
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But, European seapower allowed control
of spice exports and regulation of some parts of the Asian trading network. |
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The Europeans participated in the
existing economic and political system rather then attempting to capture it
like they did in the America’s. |
The Asian Trading World
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The first Portuguese arriving in India
discovered that their products, other then gold, were too primitive for
profitable exchange for Asian goods. |
The Coming of the
Europeans
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Muslim traders dominated Indian Ocean
and Southeast Asian commerce and Islam blocked the spread of Catholic
Christianity in the area. |
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They also saw that political divisions
divided Asians who did not understand the threat posed by the new intruders. |
The Asian Sea-Trading
Network,
c. 1500
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The trading network stretched from the
Middle East and Africa to East Asia and was divided into three main zones. |
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An Arab division in the west offered
glass, carpet, and tapestry manufacturing. |
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In the center was India and its cotton
textiles. |
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China, in the east, manufactured paper,
porcelain, and silk textiles. |
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Secondary regions in Japan, Southeast
Asia, and East Africa supplied raw materials. |
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Among the latter were ivory from Africa
and spices from Sri Lanka and Indonesia. |
Slide 7
Prior to the Europeans
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In the overall system profits were
gained from commerce in both long distance luxury items and shorter distance
bulk goods. |
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Most of the trade passed along safer
coastal routes, converging in vital intersections at the openings of the Red
Sea and Persian Gulf, and the Straits of Malacca. |
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The system had two critical
characteristics: no central control and no military force. |
Trading Empire
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Since they did not have sufficient
acceptable commodities for profitable trade to Asia, the Portuguese used
force to enter the network. |
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Their superior ships and weaponry were
unmatched except by the Chinese. |
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Taking advantage of the divisions
between the Asians, the Portuguese won supremacy on the African and Indian
coasts. |
The Portuguese Response
to the Encounter at Calicut
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They won an important victory over an
Egyptian-Indian fleet at Diu in 1509. |
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To ensure control, forts were
constructed along the Asian coast: |
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Ormuz on the Persian Gulf in 1507, |
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Goa in western India in 1510, |
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Malacca on the Malayan peninsula in
1511. |
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The Portuguese aimed to establish a
monopoly over the spice trade and, less successfully, to license all vessels
trading between Malacca and Ormuz. |
Slide 11
Portuguese Vulnerability
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The Portuguese had limited success for
some decades, but the small nation lacked the manpower and ships necessary
for enforcement. |
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Many Portuguese ignored their
government and traded independently, while rampart corruption among officials
and losses of ships further hampered policies. |
The Rise of the Dutch and
English Trading Empires
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Dutch and English rivals challenged the
weakened Portuguese in the 17th century. |
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The Dutch captured Malacca and built a
fort at Batavia in Java in 1620. |
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They decided to concentrate on the
monopoly control of some spices. |
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The English were forced to fall back to
India. |
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The Dutch trading empire resembled the
Portuguese, but they had better armed ships and controlled their monopoly
with ruthless efficiency. |
The Dutch and The English
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The Dutch discovered that the greatest
long-run profits came from peacefully exploiting the established system. |
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When the spice trade declined, they
relied on fees charged for transporting products from one Asian place to
another. |
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They also bought Asian products and
sold them within the system. |
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The English later adopted Dutch
techniques. |
Going Ashore
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Europeans were able to control Asian
seas, but not inland territories. |
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The vast Asian armies offset European
technological and organizational advantages. |
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Thus Europeans accepted the power of
Asian rulers in return for permission to trade. |
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Only in a few regions did war occur. |
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The Portuguese and Dutch conquered
coastal areas of Sri Lanka to control cinnamon. |
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In Java the Dutch expanded from their
base at Batavia to dominate coffee production. |
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By the mid-18th century they were the
paramount power in Java. |
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The Spanish in the Philippines
conquered the northern islands, but failed in the Islamic south. |
The European Tribute
Systems in Asia
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The Europeans established tribute
regimes resembling the Spanish system in the New World. |
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Indigenous peoples lived under their
own leaders and paid tribute in products produced by coerced labor under the
direction of local elites. |
Spreading the Faith
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The Protestant Dutch and English were
not much interested in winning converts. |
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Catholic Portugal and Spain were, but
success in Asia was minimal. |
The Missionary Enterprise
in South and Southeast Asia
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The world religions of Islam and
Hinduism were difficult foes. |
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Italian Jesuit Robert Di Nobli during
the 1660s unsuccessfully attempted to win converts among upper-caste members
through study of Sanskrit and Indian culture. |
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General conversion occurred only in
isolated regions like the northern Philippines. |
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Once conquered the government turned
indigenous peoples over to missionary orders. |
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Converted Filipino leaders led their
peoples into European ways, but traditional beliefs remained strong within
the converts' to Christianity. |
Modest Returns
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By 1700, following two centuries of
involvement, Europeans had made only a minimal impact on the peoples of south
and southeast Asia. |
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Important new trade routes linking
Europe, the Indian Ocean, the Philippines, and the Americas had opened. |
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The Europeans also had established
commercial centers, such as Goa, Calcutta, and Batavia, and introduced the
concept of sea warfare into a once peaceful commercial world. |
The Early Impact of
Europeans in Maritime Asia
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Still, the Asian system survived and
Europeans decided to accept rather than destroy existing arrangements. |
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Because of the long contacts between
Europe and Asia, the level of exchanges did not match the New World Colombian
exchange, although American food plants introduced by Europeans were
important. |
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European ideas, did not impress the
Asians and as a result had minimal impact. |
Ming China
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The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) ruled over
the earth's most populous state. |
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China possessed vast internal resources
and advanced technology. |
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Its bureaucracy remained the best
organized in the world and its military was formidable. |
A Global Mission Refused
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The return to the examination system
ensured the presence a numerous educated elite. |
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The dynasty emerged when Zhou
Yuanzhang, a military commander of peasant origins, joined in the revolts
against the Mongols and became the first Ming emperor, with the name of
Hongwu, in 1368. |
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Hongwu strove to drive out all Mongol
influences and drove the remaining nomads beyond the Great Wall. |
Another Scholar-Gentry
Revival
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The poorly educated Hongwu was
suspicious of the scholar-gentry, but he realized that their cooperation was
necessary for reviving Chinese civilization. |
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They were given high government posts
and imperial academies and regional colleges were restored. |
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The civil service exam was reinstated
and expanded. |
The Scholar-Gentry
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Although family connections remained
important, the examination system played a greater role than ever before in
determining entry to public service. |
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The highly competitive examination
system became more routine and complex, allowing talented individuals to
become eligible for the highest posts. |
Reform
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Hongwu sought to limit the influence of
the scholar-gentry and to check other abuses at the court. |
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He abolished the post of chief minister
and transferred to himself the considerable powers of the office. |
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Officials failing in their tasks were
publicly and harshly beaten. |
Hongwu's Efforts to Root
Out Abuses in Court Politics
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Other reforms included choosing
imperial wives from humble families, limiting the number of eunuchs, and
banishing all rivals for the throne to provincial estates. |
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Writings displeasing to the ruler were
censored. |
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However, Later rulers of the dynasty
would let these changes lapse. |
A Return to
Scholar-Gentry Social Dominance
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Hongwu sought to improve the lives of
the peasantry by helping agriculture, opening new and untaxed lands, lowering
forced labor demands, and promoting handicraft industries to supplement
household incomes. |
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The beneficial effects of the measures
were offset by the growing power of rural landlords allied with the imperial
bureaucracy. |
Scholar-Gentry Social
Dominance
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Peasants were forced to become tenants
or landless laborers. |
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The Ming period continued the
subordination of women to men, and youths to elders. |
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Exceedingly harsh laws forced
obedience. |
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Opponents, including women, had to go
underground to improve their situations. |
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Imperial women continued to be
influential, especially with weak emperors. |
Woman and the Court
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Outside the court, women were confined
to the household; their status hinged on bearing male children. |
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Upper class women might be taught
reading and writing by their parents, but they were barred from official
positions. |
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Non-elite women worked in many
occupations, but the main way to gain independence was to become a prostitute
or entertainer. |
An Age of Growth
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The early Ming period was one of
buoyant economic growth and unprecedented contacts with overseas
civilizations. |
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The commercial boom and population
increase of late Song times continued. |
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The arrival of American food crops
allowed cultivation in marginal agricultural areas. |
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By 1800 they were over 300 million
Chinese. |
Agriculture, Population,
Commerce
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Chinese manufactures were in demand
throughout Asia and Europe, and Europeans were allowed to come to Macao and
Canton to do business. |
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Merchants gained significant profits, a
portion of them passing to the state as taxes and bribes. |
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Much of the wealth went into land, the
best source of social status. |
The Arts
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The fine arts found generous patrons. |
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Painters focused on improving
established patterns. |
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Major innovation came in literature,
assisted by an increase in availability of books through the spread of
woodblock printing, with the full development of the novel. |
An Age of Expansion
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Under Emperor Yunglo the Ming sent a
series of expeditions between 1405 and 1423 to Southeast Asia, Persia,
Arabia, and East Africa under command of Zhenghe. |
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The huge fleets of large ships
demonstrated a Chinese potential for global expansion unmatched by other
contemporary nations. |
Slide 34
The Zhenghe Expeditions
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But the Chinese were ambivalent about
the value of the voyages. |
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Few tangible returns resulted from the
costly ventures. |
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National resources, it was argued, were
better spent in defending Chinese borders. |
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The voyages were abandoned in the early
1430s. |
Europe and China Compared
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Why did the Chinese, unlike Europeans,
withdraw from overseas expansion? |
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The small nation-states of Europe,
aggressively competing with their neighbors, made more efficient use of their
resources. |
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European technological innovations gave
them an advantage in animal and machine power that helped overcome overall
Chinese superiority. |
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One answer to the differing approaches
can be seen in the attitudes of the groups in each society favoring
expansion. |
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There was wide support in general
European society for increasing national and individual wealth through
successful expansion. |
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Christian leaders sought new converts. |
Means and Motive in
Overseas Expansion
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Zhenghe’s voyages were the result of an
emperor’s curiosity and desire for personal greatness. |
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Merchants, profiting from existing
commerce, were not really interested
in this new trade. |
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The scholar-gentry opposed the
expeditions as a danger to their position and as a waste of national
resources. |
Chinese Retreat
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The Chinese after the end of the
Zhenghe expeditions developed a policy of isolation. |
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In 1390 the first decree limiting
overseas commerce appeared and the navy was allowed to decline. |
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Europeans naturally were drawn to
China. |
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Missionaries sought access to the
court. |
The Arrival of the
Europeans
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Franciscans and Dominicans worked to
gain converts among the masses. |
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The Jesuits followed the Di Nobili
precedent from India in trying to win the court elite. |
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Scientific and technical knowledge were
the keys to success at the court. Jesuits like Matteo Ricci and Adam Schall
displayed such learning, but they won few converts among the hostile
scholar-gentry who considered them mere barbarians. |
Ming Decline
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By the late 1500s the dynasty was in
decline. |
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Inferior imperial leadership allowed
increasing corruption and hastened administrative decay. |
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The failure of public works projects,
especially on the Yellow River, caused starvation and rebellion. |
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Exploitation by landlords increased the
social discomfort. |
The Chinese Predicament
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The dynasty fell in 1644 before Chinese
rebels. |
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A political vacuum followed that ended
when northern nomads, the Jurchens, or Manchus, seized control. |
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Their leader, Nurhaci, established the
last of the imperial dynasties, the Qing. |
Fending Off the West
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During the 16th century an innovative
and fierce leader, Nobunaga, one of the first daimyos to make extensive use
of firearms, rose to the forefront among the contesting lords. |
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He deposed the last Ashikaga shogun in
1573, but was killed in 1582 before finishing his conquests. |
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Nobunaga's general Toyotomo Hideyoshi
continued the struggle and became master of Japan by 1590. |
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Hideyoshi then launched two
unsuccessful invasions of Korea. |
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He died in 1598. |
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Tokugawa Ieyasu won out in the ensuing
contest for succession. |
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In 1603 the emperor appointed him
shogun. |
Slide 43
Japan's Reunification and
the First Challenge
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The Tokugawas continued in power for
two and one-half centuries. |
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Ieyasu, who ruled from Edo (Tokyo)
directly controlled central Honshu and placed the remaining daimyos under his
authority. |
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Outlying daimyos over time also were
brought under Tokugawa rule. |
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The long period of civil wars had ended
and political unity restored. |
Dealing with the European
Challenge
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European traders and missionaries had
visited Japan in increasing numbers since 1543. |
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The traders exchanged Asian and
European goods, the latter including firearms, clocks, and printing presses,
for Japanese silver, copper, and artisan products. |
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The firearms, which the Japanese soon
manufactured themselves, revolutionized local warfare. |
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Roman Catholic missionaries arrived
during Nobunaga's campaigns. |
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He protected them as a counterforce to
his Buddhist opponents. |
Japan and Europe
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The Jesuits by the 1580s claimed
hundreds of thousands of converts. |
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Hideyoshi was less tolerant of
Christianity. |
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The Buddhists had been crushed and he
feared that converts would give primary loyalty to their religion. |
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Hideyoshi also feared that Europeans
might try to conquer Japan. |
Japan's Self-Imposed
Isolation
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Official measures to restrict foreign
influence were ordered from the late 1580s. |
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Christian missionaries were ordered to
leave; persecution of Christians were underway during the mid-1590s. |
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Christianity was officially banned in
1614. |
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Continued persecution provoked
unsuccessful rebellions and drove the few remaining Christians underground. |
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Isolation
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Ieyasu and his successors broadened the
campaign to isolate Japan from outside influences. |
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From 1616 merchants were confined to a
few cities; from 1630 Japanese ships could not sail overseas. |
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By the 1640s only Dutch and Chinese
ships visited Japan to trade at Deshima island. |
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Western books were banned. The retreat
into isolation was almost total by the mid-17th century. |
Japan and Isolation
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The Tokugawa continued expanding their
authority. |
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During the 18th century the revival of
neo-Confucian philosophy that had flourished under the early Tokugawas gave
way to a school of "National Learning" based upon indigenous
culture. |
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Some of the elite, in strong contrast
to the Chinese scholar-gentry, continued to follow with avid interest Western
developments through the Dutch at Deshima. |
Conclusion: Asia and the
First Phase of Europe's Global Expansion.
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Western exploration and commercial
expansion only touched parts of Asia. |
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In east Asia Chinese and Japanese
strength blocked European domination of their lands. |
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In south and southeast Asia, where
European impact was stronger, most Asians retained control of their
destinies. |
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Asian change came from indigenous
factors which maintained old cultural and social influences. |
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Even in commerce and seafaring, where
their influence was greatest, Europeans found it better to became part of
existing networks. |
Asian Transitions in an
Age of Global Change
Chapter 22