China
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Unification and Consolidation |
Chapter Summary
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The Zhou dynasty lost control of their
vassals by the 700’s BCE and internal political disorder was increased by
nomadic invasions. |
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Political stabilization returned in the
3rd century B.C.E. when Shi Huang-di of the Qin dynasty overthrow the Zhou. |
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However, policies by the Qin rulers
caused revolts ending with the emergence of the Han dynasty in 207 B.C.E. |
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The Han, ruled over 400 years and
reestablished, even expanded, the extent of Chinese civilization. |
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They founded an enduring bureaucracy
whose members, the shi, were a major influence on social and cultural
development. |
Crisis of the Later Zhou.
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Feudal warfare awarded societal value
to military skills suppressing the worth of the shi. |
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Aristocratic power grew while the shi
power declined. |
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Rituals and court etiquette were
replaced by rough nomadic manners. |
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Warfare consumed state resources and
public works. |
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Dikes and canals, were ruined. |
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Peasants were taxed heavily and
conscripted into the military. |
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The need for military materials
stimulated commerce, helping the growth of a prosperous merchant class. |
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By the end of the Zhou period China
supported larger urban centers than any other civilization of its time. |
Slide 4
Confucius and the Shi
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By the 5th century BC, thinkers like
Confucius looked for ways to create a stable society and political structure. |
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Confucius, a member of a poor shi
family, became a traveling teacher whose political and philosophical ideas
attracted followers. |
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He was a social philosopher concerned
with the need to reestablish order and harmony in China. |
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He thought that achieving order
depended upon rulers accepting the advice of superior men. |
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Women were excluded |
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Men, recruited from the shi, gained
wisdom through education. They could be from any social class. |
Confucian Thought and
Ideals
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Confucius thought that superior men
should rule to serve the interests and welfare society. |
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In return the common people should
respect and support their ruler’s superior status. |
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Social harmony depended upon everyone
accepting their social place. |
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Society was held together by personal
ties of loyalty and obedience. |
The Confucian Gentleman
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Confucius thought that the superior man
defended his decisions against all opposition. |
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Rulers should receive deference, but
the shi could criticize them for neglecting their subjects. |
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With such men, said Confucius, China
would be peaceful and tranquil. |
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The most important division among
Confucius's disciples was between Mencius and Xunzi. |
Heirs of Confucius -
Mencius
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Mencius believed that humans were good
by nature and that government should develop that goodness. He believed the
common people had the right to overthrow oppressive rulers. |
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Heirs of Confucius -
Xunzi
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Xunzi thought that humans by nature
were lazy and evil, thus requiring a strong and authoritarian government.
Education could improve people, he thought, but he rejected the idea that
government was based on their consent. |
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The Legalist school of thought embraced
Xunzi views. |
Daoist
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The philosopher Laozi offered an
alternative to Confucianism. |
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He urged rulers to be patient,
selfless, and have concern for all creatures. |
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Laozi advocated a retreat from society
into nature where individuals could attune with the Dao, or cosmic force. |
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Some of his followers, particularly
among the shi, followed Laozi's stress on meditation. |
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Others mixed his ideas with magic and
eroticism and sought immortality. |
The Qin Dynasty
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The western state of Qin, led by Shi
Huang-di, unified China at the end of the 3rd century. |
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Qin rulers had nomadic origins and were
regarded as barbarians by other Chinese. |
The Qin Dynasty
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Qin rulers introduced critical reforms
strengthening their state. |
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The Qin produced better metal weapons
and tools. |
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Peasants were freed from bondage to
lords and allowed to hold land. |
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The change weakened vassal warriors and
allowed the Qin to employ shi in a loyal bureaucracy. |
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Freed peasants enlarged armies which
were made more efficient by shi management. |
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The nomadic heritage of the Qin helped
in military tactics, especially in the use of massed cavalry and the
crossbow. |
The Legalist
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The political centralization of the Qin
was supported by statesmen known as Legalists. |
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Shang Yang and other thinkers argued
that the power of rulers should be absolute. |
Shi Huang-di
Collapse of the Qin
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Shi Huang-di's harsh policies created
opposition among both the shi and peasantry. |
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All but a few state-approved books were
ordered destroyed. |
Enter the Han
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Despite its short rule the Qin marked a
watershed in Chinese history. |
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Shi Huang-di unified China and ruled it
through a centralized bureaucracy. |
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The power of the feudal aristocracy
ended. |
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The building of roads and canals, the
shelter of the Great Wall, and a unified currency all helped to hold the
territory together. |
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A sound foundation was ready for the
succeeding Han dynasty |
Slide 17
The Han Dynasty
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The Han era was a time of great
creativity and innovation. |
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It emerged from the disorder following
the collapse of the Qin. |
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Liu Bang, a peasant village headman
leading an army of soldiers, bureaucrats, and peasants, became its first
ruler in 202 B.C.E. |
Restoration of Imperial
Control
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After a brief return to the vassalage
system, Liu Bang, officially known as Gaozu, relied on the shi to create a
more centralized administration. |
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Subsequent rulers continued his
policies by weakening the position of landholding aristocrats and granting
greater authority to appointed officials. |
Han Expansion
Revenge of the Shi
Education, Examinations,
and Shi Dominance
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Confucian classics were the centerpiece
of the educational system. |
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An examination process was established
for entering the bureaucracy. |
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Since education was expensive the
system effectively excluded almost all peasants and served the shi and
landholders. |
"Three main social
strata gained..."
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Even though many political positions
remained essentially hereditary or appointive, the Han had initiated the
concept of a professional civil service where holding office depended more on
merit than birth. |
Emergence of the Scholar
Gentry
Class and Gender Roles
Position of Women
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Widows were permitted to remarry. |
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Upperclass women often were educated. |
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Extended family living was not common
among the peasantry; women worked in households and in town markets. |
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At all levels, however, women were
subordinate to men. |
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Their most vital social function was to
produce male children. |
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Elder males dominated households and
males received the greater share of family property. |
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Political positions were reserved for
males. |
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Peasant Life
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Few peasants produced more than what
was required for subsistence and taxes. |
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With a large enough holding they might
sell any surplus and live well. |
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Poorer peasants with little or no land
labored for landlords in conditions of poverty. |
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Technological development eased labor
burdens through inventions like: |
The Peasants
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Peasants remained liable to
conscription for public works or military service. |
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Population pressure was relieved by
movement into uncultivated hill and forest regions, or to newly conquered
lands in the south. |
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Some peasants turned to banditry or
became beggars. |
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Many, for economic and physical
protection, formed secret societies which might, in stressful times, provide
a basis for rebellion. |
The Han Capital at Xian
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Xian, the model for later imperial
cities, was laid out on a grid pattern, with roadways defining its major
quarters. |
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Walls with towers and gates encircled
the city. |
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About 100,000 people lived within the
walls, with an equal or larger number residing nearby. |
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The imperial family lived in a
"forbidden city" separate from the rest of the inhabitants. |
Towns and Traders
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China then probably had the world's
most urbanized civilization. |
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There were many towns with populations
over 10,000. |
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Most were walled, and many were
administrative centers. |
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Others were centers for mining,
industry, or commerce. |
Han Trade
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Trade expanded under the Han by land
and sea routes into central Asia, south China, southeast Asia, and India. |
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Large firms controlled and grew wealthy
from the trade. |
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They also profited from lending and
investing in mining and other activities. |
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Despite their wealth, merchants were
barred, because of scholar-gentry influence, from gaining political power or
social status. |
Invention and Artisan
Production
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The Han were the most technologically
innovative of all classical civilizations. |
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Innovations included the introduction
of the brush pen and paper, watermills powering mills and workshops, rudders,
and compasses. |
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Improved techniques appeared in mining,
silk making, and ceramics. |
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The advances led to the growth of a
mostly urban artisan and manufacturing class. |
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Artisans, although relegated by the
scholar gentry to a social status inferior to peasants, surpassed them in
living standards. |
Arts of the Han
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Art was largely decorative and
geometric. |
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Calligraphy was a highly praised form. |
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Painting was less developed than under
later dynasties, but bronzes and ceramics established a lasting standard. |
Sciences of the Han
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Work in the sciences focused on
practical applications. |
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Astronomers developed a 365.5 day
calendar and calculated planetary movement. |
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Medical advances came in disease
diagnosis, herbal and drug remedies, and acupuncture. |
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In mathematics the practical focus led
to discoveries in acoustics and measurement standards. |
Imperial Crisis & Han
Restoration
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The successors of Emperor Wudi were not
efficient rulers, losing control of affairs to the families of emperor's
wives. |
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The Wang family seized power in 9 C.E. |
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Emperor Wang Mang's reform efforts
alienated the scholar-gentry and peasants. |
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In 23 C.E. he was overthrown and the
Han dynasty was restored. |
Later Han & Imperial
Collapse
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The restored dynasty did not reach the
peak attained by earlier rulers. |
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Political decline was continuous. |
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Central authority crumbled as court
factions, the scholar-gentry, emperor's wives, eunuchs, and regional lords
dueled for power. |
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The dynasty ended in 200 C.E. |
An Era of Accomplishment
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The Han dynasty established a cyclical
pattern of dynastic succession and overthrow enduring until the 20th century. |
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A core of lasting Chinese cultural
values emerged: political unity, rule by an emperor and a professional
bureaucracy, and scholar-gentry dominance. |
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Cultural differences persisted between
the legacies of Confucius and Laozi, and an elite-mass gap continued because
only a very few became literate. |
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Still, the Han presided over the
development of one of the most creative civilizations in world history. |
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The basic components of the lasting and
influential Chinese civilization had been established. |
The Shift from Ritual
Combat to "Real" War.
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The development of classical
civilizations, with their agricultural surpluses, increased populations, and
improved technologies, advanced the business of making war. |
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More people fought and suffered during
hostilities. |
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In most contemporary civilizations
warfare was little organized and subject to ritual rules. |
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Duels between warrior champions were
important. |
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Change came during the late Zhou period
when Sunzi produced a great classic of military theory, The Art of War. |
Sunzi & The Art of
War
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He argued that wars should be fought to
increase the power of the state, and should be waged with great efficiency. |
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The result was a transformation in the
tactics of warfare. |
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The Greeks of the same era
independently developed similar patterns. |
Slide 40