Abbasid Decline and the
Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and
Southeast Asia
Chapter Summary
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By the mid 9th century the Abbasids
were losing control over their vast Muslim empire. |
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Distance hampered efforts to move
armies and control local administrators. |
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Most subjects also retained local
loyalties. |
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Shi'i dissenters were particularly
troublesome, while slave and peasant risings weakened the empire. |
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Mongol invasions in the 13th century
ended the very weakened state. |
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Despite the political decline, Islamic
civilization reached new cultural heights, and Islam expanded widely in the
Afro-Asian world through conquest and peaceful conversion. |
The Islamic Heartlands in
the Middle Abbasid Era
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The Abbasid Empire disintegrated
between the 9th and 13th centuries. |
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Peasant revolts and slavery increased. |
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Despite the artistic and intellectual
creativity of the age, the position of women eroded. |
The Islamic Heartlands in
the Late Abbasid Era
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Signs of decline were present during
the reign of Caliph al-Mahdi (775-785). |
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He failed to reconcile moderate Shi'i
to Abbasid rule. |
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Al-Mahdi abandoned the frugal ways of
his predecessor and surrounded his court with luxury. |
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He failed to establish a succession
system resolving disputes among his many sons, leaving a lasting problem to
future rulers. |
Imperial Extravagance
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One son, Harun al-Rashid, became one of
the most famous Abbasid caliphs. |
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The luxury and intrigues of his court
were immortalized in The Thousand and |
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One Nights. |
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The young ruler became dependent on
Persian advisors, a trend followed during later reigns as rulers became pawns
in factional court struggles. |
Succession Disputes
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Al-Rashid's death led to the first of
many civil wars over the succession. |
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The sons of the winner, al-Ma'mun,
built personal retainer armies, some including Turkic nomads, to safeguard
their futures. |
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The armies became power centers,
removing and selecting caliphs. |
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Their uncontrolled excesses developed
into a general focus for societal unrest. |
Imperial Breakdown
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The continual civil violence drained
the imperial treasury. |
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Caliphs increased the strain by
constructing costly new imperial centers. |
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Peasants had imposing tax burdens,
often collected by farmers which forced the taxes upon them. |
Agrarian Disorder
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Agricultural villages were abandoned
and irrigation works fell into disrepair. |
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Bandits and vagabonds were everywhere. |
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They participated in peasant rebellions
often instigated by dissident religious groups. |
The Declining Position of Women
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The freedom and influence possessed
during the 1st centuries of Islam severely declined. Male-dominated Abbasid
society imagined that women possessed incurable lust, and therefore men
needed to be segregated from all but the women of their family. |
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The harem and the veil symbolized
subjugation to males. |
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The seclusion of elite women, wives and
concubines, continued, and the practice of veiling spread to all. |
Family and Society
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Abbasid wealth generated large demand
for concubines and male slaves. |
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Most came from non-Muslim neighboring
lands. |
Nomadic Incursions
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By the mid-10th century breakaway
former provinces began to challenge Abbasid rule. |
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The Buyids of Persia captured Baghdad
in 945. |
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The caliphs henceforth became powerless
puppets controlled by sultans, the actual rulers. |
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The Seljuk Turks defeated the Buyids in
1055 and ruled the remnants of the Abbasid empire for two centuries. |
The Eclipse of Caliphal
Power
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The Seljuks were staunch Sunnis who
purged the Shi’i. |
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For a time Seljuk military power
restored the diminished caliphate. |
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Egyptians and Byzantines were defeated,
the latter success opening Anatolia, the nucleus of the later Ottoman Empire,
to settlement by Turkic nomads. |
The Impact of the
Christian Crusades
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West European Christian knights in 1096
invaded Muslim territory to capture the biblical Holy Land. |
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They established small, rival kingdoms
that were not a threat to the more powerful surrounding Muslim leaders. |
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Most were recaptured near the close of
the 12th century by Muslims reunited under Saladin. |
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The last fell in 1291. |
The Christian Crusades
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The Crusades had an important impact
upon the Christian world through intensifying the existing European borrowing
of the more sophisticated technology, architecture, medicine, mathematics,
science, and general culture of Muslim civilization. |
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Europeans recovered much Greek learning
lost after the fall of Rome. |
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Italian merchants remained in Islamic
centers after the Crusader defeat and were far more important carriers of
Islamic advanced knowledge than the Christian warriors. |
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Muslim peoples were little interested
in aspects of European civilization. |
An Age Of Learning
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The political and social turmoil of
late Abbasid times did not prevent Muslim thinkers and craftsmen, in states
from Spain to Persia, from producing one of the great ages of human
creativity. |
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Rapid urban growth and its associated
prosperity persisted until late in the Abbasid era. |
Artistic Refinement
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Employment opportunities for skilled
individuals remained abundant. |
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Merchants amassed large fortunes
through supplying urban needs and from long-distance trade to India,
Southeast Asia, China, North Africa, and Europe. |
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Artists and artisans created mosques,
palaces, tapestries, rugs, bronzes, and ceramics. |
The Full Flowering of
Persian Literature
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Persian replaced Arabic as the primary
written language of the Abbasid court. |
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Arabic was the language of religion,
law, and the natural sciences. |
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Persian became the language of
"high culture," used for literary expression, administration, and
scholarship. |
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The development of a beautiful
calligraphy made literature a visual art form. |
Persian Literature
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Perhaps the greatest work was
Firdawsi's epic poem, Shah-Nama, a history of Persia from creation to Islamic
conquest. |
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Other writers, as the great poet Sa’di
and Omar Khayyam in the Rubiyat, blended mystical and commonplace themes in
their work. |
Achievements in the
Sciences
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Muslim society for several centuries
surpassed all others in scientific and technological discoveries. |
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In mathematics thinkers made major
corrections in the theories learned from the ancient Greeks. |
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In chemistry they created the objective
experiment. |
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Al-Razi classified all material
substances into three categories: animal, vegetable, mineral. |
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Al-Biruni calculated the exact specific
weight of 18 major minerals. |
The Sciences
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Sophisticated, improved, astronomical
instruments, like the astrolabe, were used for mapping the heavens. |
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Much of the Muslim achievement had
practical application. |
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In medicine improved hospitals and
formal courses of studies accompanied important experimental work. |
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Traders and craftsmen introduced
machines and techniques originating in China for paper making, silk weaving,
and ceramic firing. |
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Scholars made some of the world's best
maps. |
Religious
Trends
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The conflicting social and political
trends showed in divergent patterns of religious development. |
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Sufis developed vibrant mysticism, but ulama
(religious scholars) became more conservative and suspicious of non-Muslim
influences and scientific thought. |
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They were suspicious of Greek
rationalism and insisted that the Quran was the all-embracing source of
knowledge. |
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The great theologian al-Ghazali
struggled to fuse Greek and Quranic traditions, but often was opposed by
orthodox scholars. |
The New Impetus for
Expansion
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The Sufis created the most innovative
religious movement. |
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They reacted against the arid teachings
of the ulama and sought personal union with Allah through asceticism,
meditation, songs, dancing, or drugs. |
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Many Sufis gained reputations as
healers and miracle workers; others made the movement a central factor in the
continuing expansion of Islam. |
New Waves of Nomadic
Invasions and the End of the Caliphate
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In the early 13th century central Asian
nomadic invaders, the Mongols, threatened Islamic lands. |
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Chinggis Khan destroyed the
Turkic-Persian kingdoms east of Baghdad. |
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His grandson, Hulegu, continued the
assault. |
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The last Abbasid ruler was killed when
Baghdad fell in 1258. |
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The once great Abbasid capital became
an unimportant backwater in the Muslim world. |
The Coming of Islam to
South Asia
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Muslim invasions from the 7th century
added to the complexity of Indian civilization. |
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Previous nomadic invaders usually had
blended over time into India’s sophisticated civilization. |
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Muslims, possessors of an equally
sophisticated, but very different, culture, were a new factor. |
Islam in South Asia
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The open, tolerant, and inclusive Hindu
religion, based in a social system dominated by castes, Islam was
doctrinaire, monotheistic, evangelical, and egalitarian. |
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In the earlier period of contact,
conflict predominated, but as time passed, although tensions persisted,
peaceful commercial and religious exchange occurred in a society where Muslim
rulers governed Hindu subjects. |
North India on the Eve of
the Muslim Invasions
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North India remained politically
divided between rival dynasties after the 5th century fall of the Gupta until
Harsha in the 7th century created a stable successor empire in the central
and eastern Ganges plain. |
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Although he ruled an area larger than
any contemporary European realm, Harsha failed to unite India’s subcontinent. |
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Harsha's reign was a time of peace and
prosperity. |
the Muslim Invasions
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He built roads, rest houses, and
hospitals; he endowed temples and Buddhist monasteries. |
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Urban areas, as the capital at Kanuji,
flourished and artistic creativity revived. |
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Harsha, a Hindu, was tolerant of all
faiths and strongly attracted to Buddhism. |
Political Divisions
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Harsha's empire collapsed with his
death in 646. |
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Hindu culture continued to flourish,
but political divisions left north India open to Muslim invasions beginning
in 711. |
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The Umayyad general Muhammad ibn Qasim
conquered and annexed Sind, and , despite quarrels among succeeding Muslim
dynasties, the occupation endured. |
The First Muslim
Invasions
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Many Indians, treated as "people
of the book," welcomed the new rulers because they offered religious
tolerance and lighter taxes. |
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Most indigenous officials retained
their positions, while brahmin castes were respected. |
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Few Arabs resided in cities or garrison
towns, and minimal conversion efforts did not change existing religious
beliefs. |
Indian Influences on
Islamic Civilization
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Although Islam's impact in India was
minimal, Islamic civilization was enriched by Indian culture. |
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Indian achievements in science,
mathematics, medicine, music, and astronomy passed to the Arabs. |
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Indian numerals were accepted, later to
pass to Europe as "Arabic" numerals. |
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Colonies of Arabs settled along India's
coasts, adopted local customs, and provided staging points for later Islamic
expansion to island and mainland Southeast India. |
From Booty to Empire
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After the initial Muslim conquests,
internal divisions weakened Muslim rule and allowed limited Hindu reconquest. |
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In the 10th century a Turkish dynasty
gained power in Afghanistan. |
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Its third ruler, Mahmud of Ghazni,
began two centuries of incursions into northern India. |
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In the 12th century the Persian
Muhammad of Ghur created an extensive state in the Indus valley and
north-central India. |
The Second Wave of Muslim
Invasions
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Later campaigns extended it along the
plains of the Ganges to Bengal. |
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A lieutenant to Muhammad, Qutb-ud-Din
Aibak, later formed a new state, with its capital at Delhi on the Ganges
plain. |
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The succeeding dynasties, the sultans
of Delhi, were military states. |
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Their authority was limited by
factional strife and dependence upon Hindu subordinates. |
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They ruled much of north-central India
for the next 300 years. |
Patterns of Conversion
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Although Muslims came as conquerors,
interaction with Indians early was dominated by peaceful exchanges. |
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The main carriers of Islam were traders
and Sufi mystics, the latter drawing followers because of similarities to
Indian holy men. |
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Their mosques and schools became
centers of regional political power providing protection to local
populations. |
Conversion Patterns
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Low and outcast Hindus were welcomed. |
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Buddhists were the most numerous
converts. |
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Buddhist spiritual decline had debased
its practices and turned interest to the vigorous new religion of Islam. |
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Others converted to escape taxes or
through intermarriage. |
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Muslim migrants fleeing 13th and 14th
century Mongol incursions also increased the Islamic community. |
Patterns of Accommodation
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In most regions Islam initially had
little impact on the general Hindu community. |
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High-caste Hindus did not accept the
invaders as their equals. |
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Although serving as administrators or
soldiers, they remained socially aloof, living in separate quarters and not
intermarrying. |
Accommodation
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Hindus thought the Muslims, as earlier
invaders, would be absorbed by Hindu society. |
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Muslim communities did adopt many
Indian ways. |
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They accepted Hindu social hierarchies,
foods, and attitudes toward women. |
Islamic Challenge
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Muslims, despite Indian influences,
held to the tenets of Islam. |
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The Hindu response, open to all
individuals and castes led to an increased emphasis on devotional cults of
gods and goddesses (bhakti). |
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The cults, open to men, women, and all
castes, stressed the importance of strong emotional bonds to the gods. |
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Mira Bai, a low-caste woman, and Kabir,
a Muslim weaver, composed songs and poems in regional languages accessible to
common people. |
Hindu Revival
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Reaching a state of ecstatic unity
brought removal of all past sins and rendered caste distinctions meaningless. |
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Shiva, Vishnu, and the goddess Kali
were the most worshipped gods. |
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The movement helped, especially among
low-caste groups, to stem conversion to Islam. |
Stand-off
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Similarities in style and message
between Sufis and bhaktic devotees led to attempts to bridge the gaps between
Islam and Hinduism. |
The Muslim Presence in
India at the End of the Sultanate Period
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By the close of the sultanate period
there were two distinct religious communities. |
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The great majority of the population
remained Hindu. |
The Spread of Islam to
Southeast Asia
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Southeast Asia had been a middle ground
where the Chinese part of the Eurasian trading complex met the Indian Ocean
zone. |
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By the 7th and 8th centuries southeast
Asian sailors and ships were active in the trade. |
Spread of Islam
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When Muslims, from the 8th century,
gained control of Indian commerce, Islamic culture reached Southeast Asia. |
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The 13th century collapse of the
trading empire of Shrivijaya, ruled by devout Buddhists and located on the
Straits of Malacca and northern Sumatra, made possible large-scale, peaceful,
Muslim entry. |
Trading Contacts and
Conversion
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Peaceful contacts and voluntary
conversion were more important to the spread of Islam than conquest and
force. |
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Trading contacts prepared the way for
conversion, with the process carried forward by Sufis. |
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The first conversions occurred in small
northern Sumatran ports. |
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On the mainland the key to the spread
of Islam was the city of Malacca, the smaller successor to Shrivijaya. |
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From Malacca Islam went to Malaya,
Sumatra, and the state of Demak on Java's north coast. |
Malacca
Islam and Java
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Islam spread into Java and moved on to
the Celebes and Mindanao in the Philippines. |
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Coastal cities were the most receptive
to Islam. |
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Their conversion linked them to a
Muslim system connected to the principal Indian Ocean ports. |
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Buddhist dynasties were present in many
regions, but since Buddhist conversions were limited to the elite, the mass
of the population was open to the massage of Sufis. |
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The island of Bali and mainland
Southeast Asia, where Buddhism had gained popular support, remained
impervious to Islam. |
Sufi Mystics
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The mystical quality of Islam in
Southeast Asia was due to Sufi strivings. |
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They often were tolerant of the
indigenous peoples’ Buddhist and Hindu beliefs. |
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Converts retained pre-Islamic
practices, especially for regulating social interaction. |
The Nature of Southeast
Asian Islam
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Islamic law ruled legal transactions. |
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Women held a stronger familial and
societal position than they had in the Middle East or India. |
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They dominated local markets, while in
some regions matrilineal descent persisted. |
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Many pre-Muslim beliefs were
incorporated into Islamic ceremonies. |
Conversion and
Accommodation in the Spread of World Religions
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Great civilizations and world religions
have been closely associated throughout world history. |
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World religions, belief structures that
flourish in many differing cultures, have to possess a spiritual core rich
enough to appeal to potential converts. |
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They have to possess core beliefs that
allow new members to maintain a sense of common identity, but also must be
flexible enough to allow retention of important parts of their local culture. |
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The capacity for accommodation allowed
Islam, and later Christianity, to spread successfully into many differing
communities. |
The Legacy of the Abbasid
Age
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Despite the political instability of
the Abbasids, Islam's central position in global history was solidified. |
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The expanding Muslim world linked
ancient civilizations through conquest and commercial networks. |
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Islam was the civilizer of nomadic
peoples in Asia and Africa. |
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Its cultural contributions diffused
widely from great cities and universities. . |
Conclusion
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There were tendencies that placed
Muslims at a disadvantage in relation to rival civilizations, particularly to
their European rivals. |
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Political divisions caused weaknesses
in many regions. |
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Most importantly, the increasing
rigidity of the Ulama caused Muslims to become less receptive to outside
influences at a time when the European world transformed its culture and
power. |
Abbasid Decline and the
Spread of Islamic Civilization to South and
Southeast Asia