Early Reforms
nPeasant risings persisted because of the enduring harsh conditions which were exacerbated by population growth.
•Reform had not gone far enough.
•Other efforts did follow.
nIn the 1860s and 1870s Alexander II improved law codes and created local political councils (zemstvoes)
with authority over regional
matters.
nThe councils gave political experience to middle class people, but they had no influence on national policy.
nMilitary reform included officer promotion through merit
and increased recruitment.
nThere was limited extension of the education system.
•During this
era literacy increased rapidly and a market for popular reading matter developed.
•Some women
gained access to higher education and to the professions.
•In family
organization Russia followed earlier European trends.