1
|
- Russia and Japan: Industrialization Outside the West.
|
2
|
- Russia and Japan challenged the pattern of 19th-century European
domination.
- By 1914 they launched significant industrialization and accomplished
other changes that preserved their independence.
- Both achieved economic autonomy and were able to join in the
imperialist scramble.
|
3
|
- However, there were differences between the two.
- Japan displayed more political flexibility than Russia.
- Change in Russia increased internal strains and led to revolution.
- Japan through its reforms pulled away from the rest of East Asia.
- Russia continued expanding its influence in eastern Europe and central
Asia.
|
4
|
- Russia moved into an active period of social and political reform in
1861 that established the base for industrialization by the 1890s.
- Immense social strain resulted as the government attempted to remain
autocratic.
|
5
|
- The French Revolution and Napoleon's invasion of 1812 produced a
backlash in Russia against Westernization.
- Conservative intellectuals embraced the turn to isolation as a way of
preserving Russian values and institutions, including serfdom.
|
6
|
- Though, some intellectuals remained fascinated with Western developments
in politics, science, and culture.
- When Western-oriented army officers helped stir up the Decembrist revolt
of 1825, Tsar Nicholas I repressed opposition.
- As a result, Russia escaped the European revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
|
7
|
- Russia also continued its territorial expansion.
|
8
|
- The Congress of Vienna confirmed Russia’s hold over Poland
- Polish nationalist revolts during the 1830s were brutally suppressed.
- Pressure on the Ottoman Empire continued and Russia supported
dissidents in Greece and Serbia.
|
9
|
- In economic terms Russia fell behind the West because it failed to
industrialize.
- Landlords increased exports of grain by tightening labor obligations on
serfs.
- Russia remained a profoundly agricultural society dependent upon un-free
labor.
|
10
|
- The significance of the failure to industrialize was demonstrated by the
Crimean War (1854-1856).
- Britain and France came to the support of the Ottomans and defeated the
Russians because of their industrial economies.
|
11
|
- Tsar Alexander II was convinced that reforms were necessary, and that
meant resolving the issue of serfdom.
- Many individuals believed that a free labor force would produce higher
agricultural profits; others wished to end abuses or to end periodic
peasant risings.
- Reform was seen as a way to protect distinctive Russian institutions,
not to copy the West.
|
12
|
- The serfs were emancipated in 1861;
- They received land but did not gain any political freedoms.
- They were tied to their villages until they paid for the lands they had
received.
- The payments, plus increasing taxation, kept most peasants very poor.
- The emancipation did create a larger urban labor force, but it did not
spur agricultural productivity.
- Peasants continued to use old methods on their small holdings.
|
13
|
- Peasant risings persisted because of the enduring harsh conditions which
were exacerbated by population growth.
- Reform had not gone far enough.
- Other efforts did follow.
- In the 1860s and 1870s Alexander II improved law codes and created
local political councils (zemstvoes) with authority over regional
matters.
- The councils gave political experience to middle class people, but
they had no influence on national policy.
- Military reform included officer promotion through merit and increased
recruitment.
- There was limited extension of the education system.
- During this era literacy increased rapidly and a market for popular
reading matter developed.
- Some women gained access to higher education and to the professions.
- In family organization Russia followed earlier European trends.
|
14
|
- A move to industrialization was part of the process of change.
- State support was vital since Russia lacked a middle class and capital.
- A railway system was created in the 1870s; it reached the Pacific in
the 1880s.
- The railways stimulated the iron and coal sectors as well as the export
of grain to the West.
- They also opened Siberia to development and increased Russian
involvement in Asia.
- Factories appeared in Russian and Polish cities by the 1880s and the
government quickly acted to protect them from foreign competition.
|
15
|
|
16
|
- Under Count Witte, from 1892 to 1903, the government passed high
tariffs, improved the banking system, and encouraged Western investment.
- By 1900 about one-half of industry was foreign owned.
- Russia became a debtor nation, but the industries did not produce
economic autonomy.
- Even though by 1900 some Russian industries were challenging world
leaders, the Russian industrial revolution was in its early stages.
- Its world rank was due to its great size and rich resources, not its
technology or trained work force.
|
17
|
- Despite all the reform, Russia remained a traditional peasant society
that had not experienced the change in “way of thinking” that western
nations experienced with industrialization.
- Unrest accompanied transformation by the 1880s and Russia became a very
unstable society.
|
18
|
- Alexander II's reforms and economic change encouraged minority
nationality demands in the empire.
- Cultural nationalism led to political demands and worried the state.
- Social protest was heightened by the limitations of reform and by
industrialization.
|
19
|
- The intelligentsia wanted radical political change and deep social
reform while preserving a distinct Russian culture.
- Some of the intellectuals became anarchists who hoped to triumph by
winning peasant support.
- When peasants were not interested, some turned to terrorism.
- The government reaction was to pull back from reform, introduce
censorship, and exile dissidents to Siberia.
- Alexander II was assassinated in 1881
- His successors opposed reform and continued political, religious, and
ethnic repression.
|
20
|
- By the 1890s new protest currents appeared.
- Marxist socialism spread among the intelligentsia.
- Vladimir Lenin attempted to make Marxism fit Russian conditions and
organized disciplined cells to work for the expected revolution.
- At the same time working-class unrest in the cities showed through
union formation and strikes – both of which were illegal – to
compensate for lack of political outlets.
|
21
|
- Russia had continued imperialist expansion through the 19th and into the
20th century.
- Gains were made against the Ottomans in the 1870s.
- New Slavic nations, Serbia and Bulgaria, were created, and
conservatives talked of Russian leadership of a pan-Slavic movement.
- In the Middle East and central Asia Russia was active in Persia and
Afghanistan.
- In China the Russians moved into Manchuria and gained long-term leases
to territory.
|
22
|
|
23
|
- Russia encountered the similarly expanding Japanese and was defeated in
the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05.
- The loss unleashed protests in Russia.
- Urban workers and peasants joined liberal groups in the Revolution of
1905.
- The government bowed and created a national parliament, the Duma.
|
24
|
- Minister Stolypin introduced important peasant reforms: greater freedom
from redemption payments, liberal purchase and sale of land.
- He aimed to create a market-oriented peasantry divided from the rest of
the peasant mass.
- Some entrepreneurs among the peasants - kulaks – did increase
production.
- But the reform package quickly fell apart as the tsar withdrew rights,
took authority away from the Duma, and resumed police repression.
|
25
|
- After the loss to Japan Russian foreign activities returned to the
Ottoman Empire, and eastern Europe.
- The nations of Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, some recently
gaining independence from the Ottomans, established parliaments elected
by carefully restricted voters.
- Kings ruled without much check.
|
26
|
- In the midst of their many problems eastern Europe enjoyed during the
late 19th century a period of cultural productivity that helped to
enhance their sense of national heritage.
- Russian novelists, such as Turgenev, Dostoevsky, and Tolstoy, gained
world fame.
- In music composers moved from the brilliant romanticism of Tchaikovsky
to innovative styles.
- Eastern European composers, such as Chopin and Lizt, produced
important works.
- In science the Czech “Mendel” advanced the study of genetics and the
Russian “Pavlov” contributed in physiology.
|
27
|
- Japan's response to outside pressure was more direct and successful than
that of Russia.
- The Japanese adapted to the challenge of industrial change and internal
market reform.
- Many institutions had to be altered and much societal change resulted.
|
28
|
- During the first half of the 19th century the shogunate continued to
combine a central bureaucracy with semi-feudal alliances between
regional daimyos and samurai.
- The government encountered financial problems because taxation was based
on agriculture while the economy was becoming more commercialized.
- Reform spurts met revenue gaps until the 1840s when an unsuccessful
effort weakened the government and hampered responses to Western
pressure.
- Japanese intellectual and cultural life continued to expand under the
Tokugawa.
- Neo-Confucianism kept its hold among the elite at the expense of
Buddhism.
|
29
|
- The upper classes became more secular, with variety among Confucian
schools preventing the intellectual unproductiveness common in China.
- Education expanded beyond the upper classes and led to the highest
literacy rate outside of the West.
- Even though Confucianism was dominant, there were many intellectual
rivals.
- A national studies group venerated Japanese traditions, including the
position of the emperor and Shinto religion.
- Another group pursued Dutch studies, or an interest in Western
scientific progress.
|
30
|
- The Japanese economy continued to develop as internal commerce expanded
and manufacturing spread into the countryside.
- By the 1850s economic growth was slowing as technological limitations
hindered agricultural growth and population increase.
- Rural riots reflected peasant distress and helped to weaken the
shogunate.
|
31
|
- In 1853 an American naval squadron commanded by Matthew Perry forced the
opening of Japan to the West.
- Perry’s negotiations won the right to station a consul and open ports
for commerce.
- European nations quickly secured equal rights.
- The shogunate bureaucrats had yielded to Western naval superiority;
other Japanese favored the ending of isolation.
- They were opposed by conservative daimyos.
- All sides appealed to the emperor.
|
32
|
- The shogunate had depended on the policy of isolation and proved unable
to withstand the stresses caused by foreign intervention.
- Internal disorder resulted in 1860s that ended in 1868 with the defeat
of the shogunate and the proclamation of rule by Emperor Mutsuhito,
called Meiji.
|
33
|
- Japan and China, despite both being part of the same civilization orbit,
responded very differently to Western pressures.
- Both nations had chosen isolation from outside influences from about
1600 to the mid 19th century, and thus fell behind the West.
- China had the capability to react to the challenge, but did not act.
- Japan, with knowledge of the benefits of imitation, acted differently.
- Japan’s limited population growth, in contrast to Chinese population
growth, also assisted its response.
- In political affairs China, by the mid-19th century, was suffering a
dynastic crisis;
- Japan maintained political and economic vigor.
- In the late 19th century the east Asian world split apart and Japan
became the stronger of the two nations.
|
34
|
- The Meiji government abolished feudalism.
- The daimyos were replaced by nationally appointed prefects in 1871.
- The new centralized administration expanded state power to carry out
economic and social change.
- Samurai officials were sent to Europe and the United States to study
their economies, technologies, and political systems.
- Between 1873 and 1876 the government abolished the samurai class and its
state stipends.
- Most samurai became impoverished and revolt resulted in 1877.
- The reformed army, based on national conscription, quickly triumphed.
- Samurai continued to exist and many sought opportunities in commerce and
politics.
|
35
|
- By 1889 the political reconstruction was complete.
- Political parties had formed on regional levels.
- The Meiji created a new conservative nobility from former nobles and
Meiji leaders
- They sat in a British-style House of Peers.
- The bureaucracy was reorganized, expanded, and opened to those taking
civil service examinations.
- The constitution of 1889 gave major authority to the emperor and lesser
power to the lower house of the Diet.
- High property qualifications limited the right to vote to about 5% of
the male population.
- The system gave power to an oligarchy of wealthy businessmen and former
nobles that controlled political currents into the 20th century.
- Japan had imitated the West, but had retained its own identity.
|
36
|
- Japan's reorganization went beyond political life.
- A Western-style army and navy was created.
- New banks were established to fund trade and provide investment
capital.
- Railways and steam vessels improved national communications.
- Many old restrictions on commerce, such as guilds and internal tariffs,
were removed.
- Land reform cleared the way for individual ownership and stimulated
production.
|
37
|
- Government initiative dominated manufacturing because of lack of capital
and unfamiliar technology.
- A Ministry of Industry was created in 1870 to establish overall
economic policy and operate certain industries.
- Model factories were created to provide industrial experience, and an
expanded education system offered technical training.
- Private enterprise was involved in the growing economy, especially in
textiles.
- Entrepreneurs came from all social ranks.
|
38
|
- By the 1890s huge industrial syndicates (zaibatsu) had been formed.
- Thus by 1900 Japan was fully engaged in an industrial revolution.
- Its success in managing foreign influences was a major accomplishment,
but Japan before World War I was still behind the West.
- It depended upon Western imports - equipment and coal - and world
economic conditions.
- Successful exports required inexpensive labor, often poorly paid women.
- Labor organization efforts were repressed.
|
39
|
- The industrial and other changes went along with a massive population
increase that supplied cheap labor but strained resources and stability.
- In the cultural sphere the government introduced a universal education
system stressing science, technology, and loyalty to the nation.
- The scientific approach enhanced the earlier secular bent of elite
culture.
- Western fashions in dress and personal care were adopted along with the
calendar and metric system.
- Christianity, however, gained few converts.
|
40
|
- In family life the birthrate dropped as population growth forced
movement from the land and factory labor made children less useful.
- Family instability showed in a high divorce rate.
- The traditional view of the inferiority of women in the household
continued
- Formality of manners and diet were maintained.
- Shintoism found new believers.
- The changes in Japan's economic power influenced foreign policy.
- By the 1890s they joined the imperialist nations.
- The change gave displaced samurai a role and provided nationalist
stimulation for the populace.
|
41
|
- Japan's need for raw materials helped pressure expansion.
- China and Japan fought over Korea in 1894-1895.
- Japan's quick victory demonstrated the presence of a new Asian power.
- A 1902 alliance with Britain made it an equal partner in the great
power diplomatic system.
- Rivalry with Russia brought war in 1904 and another Japanese victory.
- Korea was annexed in 1910.
|
42
|
- Japanese success had its costs, among them poor living standards in
crowded cities and arguments between generations over Westernization.
- The emergence of political parties caused disputes with the emperor and
his ministers, leading to frequent elections and political
assassinations.
- Many intellectuals worried about the loss of identity in a changing
world; others were concerned at lack of economic opportunities for the
enlarged educated class.
|
43
|
- To counter the malaise officials urged loyalty to the emperor as a
center of national identity.
- Japanese nationalism built on traditions of superiority and cohesion,
deference to rulers, and the tensions from change.
- Its strength was a main factor in preventing the revolutions occurring
in other industrializing nations.
- No other nation outside the West matched Japan's achievements.
|
44
|
- The entry of Japan and Russia, plus the United States, changed the world
diplomatic picture by the early 20th century.
- Japan was not yet a major world power, but Westerners thought about a
"yellow peril" as they watched it's new strength.
|